Stoicism and Mental Health 斯多葛主义和心理健康

By Bertrand Russell

By means of modern psychology, many educational problems which were formerly tackled (very unsuccessfully) by sheer moral discipline are now solved by more indirect but also more scientific methods. There is, perhaps, a tendency, especially among the less well-informed devotees of psychoanalysis, to think that there is no longer any need of stoic self-command. I do not hold this view, and in the present essay I wish to consider some of the situations which make it necessary, and some of the methods by which it can be created in young people; also some of the dangers to be avoided in creating it.

借着现代心理学的方法，许多过去（极不成功地）靠着纯粹道德法则去对付的教育问题，现在能以更为间接、但也更为科学的方法解决了。现在可能有一种倾向，特别是在那些孤陋寡闻的心理分析倡导者中间，那就是认为不再需要任何斯多葛式的自制了。我并不持这种看法，在本文中我就要考虑一下自制必要性的几种情况，在年轻人中养成自制的一些方法及培养自制能力时应避免的危险。

Let us begin at once with the most difficult and most essential of the problems that call for stoicism: I mean, Death. There are various ways of attempting to cope with the fear of death. We may try to ignore it; we may never mention it, and always try to turn our thoughts in another direction when we find ourselves dwelling on it. This is the method of the butterfly people in Wells’s Time Machine. Or we may adopt the exactly opposite course, and meditate continually concerning the brevity of human life, in the hope that familiarity will breed contempt; this was the course adopted by Charles V in his cloister after his abdication. There was a Fellow of a Cambridge College who even went so far as to sleep with his coffin in the room, and who used to go out on to the College lawns with a spade to cut worms in two, saying as he did so: ‘Yah! you haven’t got me yet.’ There is a third course, which has been very widely adopted, and that is, to persuade oneself and others that death is not death, but the gateway to a new and better life. These three methods, mingled in varying proportions, cover most people’s accommodations to the uncomfortable fact that we die.

我们先从面对斯多葛主义最困难和最本质的问题，即死亡问题开始讨论。试图克服对于死亡的恐惧有种种方式。我们可以鄙视它，可以不提起它，而且当发现自己在这个问题上受到困扰时，尽力将思想转到另外的方向上去。这是威尔斯在《时间机器》中所说的轻薄之士的方法。而我们可以采用正相反的方式，即不断冥想人类生命之短促，以期望从这种领会中产生对人生轻蔑之情感；这正是查理五世退位后在其修道院里采用的方法。剑桥大学的一位同学更为极端，竟与房间里的棺木同寝，还常常走到学校的草地上，用锄具将小虫铲成两半，同时说：“哈，你还没有抓住我。”还有第三种更为人们广泛采用的方法，就是说服自己和他人，去相信死亡并非毁灭，而是进入新的更加美好生活的途径。上述这三种方法，以各种不同的比例混搅在一起，成为在多数人用来对付死亡这一令人不快之事的办法。

To each of these methods, however, there are objections. The attempt to avoid thinking about an emotionally interesting subject, as the Freudians have pointed out in connection with sex, is sure to be unsuccessful, and to lead to various kinds of undesirable contortions. Now it may, of course, be possible, in the life of a child, to ward off knowledge of death, in any poignant form, throughout the earlier years. Whether this happens or not, is a matter of luck. If a parent or brother or sister dies, there is nothing to be done to prevent a child from acquiring an emotional awareness of death. Even if, by luck, the fact of death does not become vivid to a child in early years, it must do so sooner or later; and in those who are quite unprepared, there is likely to be a serious loss of balance when this occurs. We must therefore seek to establish some attitude towards death other than that of merely ignoring it.

然而，对于这些方法的任何一种，都有反对的意见。企图去考虑那种容易引起感情波动的事，就如弗洛依德学派所揭示的有关性的问题，那肯定是不会成功的，而且会引起种种不愿意有的心理变态。儿童时期当然可以从某种生动的形式，在早期的生活里避开对死亡的了解。至于这种事是否会发生，这是个侥幸的问题。如果父母或兄弟姐妹中有一个死了，那就无法阻止儿童在情绪上对于死亡的感触。即使很幸运，儿童早年时对死亡一事并无什么明显的印象，但迟早必然会有的；当一个人对某事没有思想准备时，一旦此事发生了，很可能造成心理上严重失衡。因此，我们必须寻求确立某种对待死亡的态度，而不是仅仅蔑视它。

The practice of brooding continually on death is at least equally harmful. It is a mistake to think too exclusively about any one subject, more particularly when our own thinking cannot issue in action. We can, of course, act so as to postpone our own death, and within limits every normal person does so. But we cannot prevent ourselves from dying ultimately; this is, therefore, a profitless subject of meditation. Moreover, it tends to diminish a man’s interest in other people and events, and it is only objective interests that can preserve mental health. Fear of death makes a man feel himself the slave of external forces, and from a slave mentality no good result can follow. If, by meditation, a man could genuinely cure himself of the fear of death, he would cease to meditate on the subject; so long as it absorbs his thoughts, that proves that he has not ceased to fear it. This method, therefore, is no better than the other.

总是不断地想着死亡问题，至少同样是有害的。过于专一地思虑任何一个问题都是错误，特别是当我们的思考不能付诸行动时更是如此。当然，我们可以设法延迟自己的死亡，而且在一定限度内，每个正常人都可这样做。但我们不能最终免干一死；因此，沉思死亡是一个无益的主题。而且，它会减弱人们对于他人和其他事物的兴趣，唯有对外界事物的兴趣才能保持人们精神上的健康。对于死亡的恐惧会使人感到他是外在力量的奴隶，而从奴隶的心态中是不能产生好结果的。如果一个人通过沉思可以真正医治他对死亡的恐惧心理，那他就不再思考这一问题；只要他的思想为此沉迷，就证明他并未克服恐惧。因此，这个方法并不比其他方法更好。

The belief that death is a gateway to a better life ought, logically, to prevent men from feeling any fear of death. Fortunately for the medical profession, it does not in fact have this effect, except in a few rare instances. One does not find that believers in a future life are less afraid of illness or more courageous in battle than those who think that death ends all. The late F. W. H. Myers used to tell how he asked a man at a dinner table what he thought would happen to him when he died. The man tried to ignore the question, but, on being pressed, replied: ‘Oh, well, I suppose I shall inherit eternal bliss, but I wish you wouldn’t talk about such unpleasant subjects.’ The reason for this apparent inconsistency is, of course, that religious belief, in most people, exists only in the region of conscious thought, and has not succeeded in modifying unconscious mechanisms. If the fear of death is to be coped with successfully, it must be by some method which affects behaviour as a whole, not only that part of behaviour that is commonly called conscious thought. In a few instances, religious belief can effect this, but not in the majority of mankind. Apart from behaviouristic reasons, there are two other sources of this failure: one is a certain doubt which persists in spite of fervent professions, and shows itself in the form of anger with sceptics; the other is the fact that believers in a future life tend to emphasise, rather than minimise, the horror that would attach to death if their beliefs were unfounded, and so to increase fear in those who do not feel absolute certainty.

死亡是通向更加美好生活的途径，这一信念从逻辑上说应阻止人对死亡的任何恐惧感觉。但对于医学界来说，值得庆幸的是，除少数例外，事实上并不能产生如此效果。人们并没有发现，对未来生活充满信心的人，就比那些认为死后一切皆完结的人，对疾病更少害怕，或在同困难的斗争中有更多的勇气。已故的麦尔士（英国诗人、散文家）常常谈起在饭桌上他问起一个人死时的想法。那个人总想避开这个问题，但在逼迫之下，只好回答说：“噢，嗯，我认为我将享受永远的祝福，但我希望你不要谈这个不愉快的话题。”这种明显矛盾的理由，当然是由于对大多数人来说，宗教信仰只存在于思想意识领域之中，而对于局限在非意识的物质领域就无法承担了。如果想成功地克服对死亡的恐惧，就必须靠那种能影响整体行为，而不只是通常所说的属于思维意识的那部分行为的方法。在少数情况下，宗教能产生这种结果，但对大多数人却并非如此，除了行为主义者的理由之外，导致失败还有另外两个原因：一是不管强烈的自信如何，仍然存在着某种怀疑，而且这种怀疑本身是以对怀疑论不满的形式表现出来的；一是如果对来世的信仰没有根据时，他们势必增强而不是减弱对死亡的恐惧，所以那些不把来世看作绝对确定的人只能增加恐惧的情绪。

What, then, shall we do with young people to adapt them to a world in which death exists? We have to achieve three objects, which are very difficult to combine. (1) We must give them no feeling that death is a subject about which we do not wish to speak or to encourage them to think. If we give them such a feeling, they will conclude that there is an interesting mystery, and will think all the more. On this point, the familiar modern position on sex education is applicable. (2) We must nevertheless so act as to prevent them, if we can, from thinking much or often on the matter of death; there is the same kind of objection to such absorption as to absorption in pornography, namely that it diminishes efficiency, prevents all-round development, and leads to conduct which is unsatisfactory both to the person concerned and to others. (3) We must not hope to create in anyone a satisfactory attitude on the subject of death by means of conscious thought alone; more particularly, no good is done by beliefs intended to show that death is less terrible than it otherwise would be, when (as is usual) such beliefs do not penetrate below the level of consciousness.

那么，为使年轻人能适应这存在着死亡的世界，我们该有何作为呢？我们必须达到三个相互极难协合的目标。（1）我们必须使他们不要感觉到死亡是我不愿谈论或不鼓励他们思考的问题。如果我们让他们有了这样的感觉，那他们就会得出结论：这里面一定是有趣、神秘的，这样他们就会想得更多。就这点来说，也适用于现代关于性教育的观点。（2）如果我们能够的话，我们必须阻止他们总想着死亡的事情；对此专注如同专一于色情文学那样，存在着同样的反对意见，那就是它会弱化人的才能，妨碍人的全面发展，以致会引起本人和他人所不满意的行为。（3）我们不要指望仅仅通过思想意识就能给任何人创造出对待死亡问题的满意态度；更为特殊地，善良的行为并不是靠着想要表明死亡比其他情况更不可怕的信念而做出，只要这种信念（通常如此）尚未渗透到意识之中。

To give effect to these various objects, we shall have to adopt somewhat different methods according to the experience of the child or young person. If no one closely connected with the child dies, it is fairly easy to secure an acceptance of death as a common fact, of no great emotional interest. So long as death is abstract and impersonal, it should be mentioned in a matter-offact voice, not as something terrible. If the child asks, ‘Shall I die?’ one should say, ‘Yes, but probably not for a long time.’ It is important to prevent any sense of mystery about death. It should be brought into the same category with the wearing out of toys. But it is certainly desirable, if possible, to make it seem very distant while children are young.

为了使这些不同的目标富有成效，我们必须根据儿童和青年的经验，采取稍稍不同的方法。如果没有一个与某儿童密切相关的人死去，那他就很容易把死亡看作是普通的事，不会引起大的情感上的触动。只要死亡是抽象的、非个人的，应以通常的语气提及它，而不要当作什么可怕的事。如果一个孩子问：“我会死吗？”你应回答：“是的，但在很大时间内也许不会死。”阻止对死亡的神秘感是很重要的。应把它看作同玩具坏了属同一范畴的事。但是，在孩子们幼小时，确实需要尽可能地使死亡看来是很遥远的事。

When someone of importance to the child dies, the matter is different. Suppose, for example, the child loses a brother. The parents are unhappy, and although they may not wish the child to know how unhappy they are, it is right and necessary that he should perceive something of what they suffer. Natural affection is of very great importance, and the child should feel that his elders feel it. Moreover, if, by superhuman efforts, they conceal their sorrow from the child, he may think: ‘They wouldn’t mind if I died.’ Such a thought might start all kinds of morbid developments. Therefore, although the shock of such an occurrence is harmful when it occurs during late childhood (in early childhood it will not be felt much), yet, if it occurs, we must not minimise it too much. The subject must be neither avoided nor dwelt upon; what is possible, without any too obvious intention, must be done to create fresh interest, and above all fresh affections. I think that very intense affection for some one individual, in a child, is not infrequently a mark of something amiss. Such affection may arise towards one parent if the other parent is unkind, or towards a teacher if both parents are unkind. It is generally a product of fear: the object of affection is the only person who gives a sense of safety. Affection of this kind, in childhood, is not wholesome. Where it exists the death of the person loved may shatter the child’s life. Even if all seems well outwardly, every subsequent love will be filled with terror. Husband (or wife) and children will be plagued by undue solicitude, and will be thought heartless when they are merely living their own lives. A parent ought not, therefore, to feel pleased at being the object of this kind of affection. If the child has a generally friendly environment and is happy, he will without much trouble get over the pain of any one loss that may happen to him. The impulse to life and hope ought to be sufficient, provided the normal opportunities for growth and happiness exist.

当与儿童关系密切的人死了，情况就不同了。例如，假定这个孩子失去了一个哥哥。父母都会很哀痛，而且尽管他们可能不想让这个孩子知道他们是如何悲痛，而使他感觉到他们遭受了某事件，这是可取而且必要的。自然的情感是极其重要的，儿童应该体会到他长者的这种情感。况且，如果父母以超人的努力，在儿童面前遮掩他们内心的悲痛，那儿童就可能认为：“如果我死了，他们也会不在乎的。”这样的想法会导致各种病态的发展。因此，尽管在儿童后期（在早期这种感觉不会太深）因这种事而引起的打击是有害的，但如果发生了，我们也不必过于抑制。这个问题既不必加以回避，也不必过多注意；应尽可能不带任何过于明显的意图去做些以引起新兴趣的事情，特别是引起新的情感。我认为孩子对于某个人怀有深厚感情，并不是偶尔的错误在某件事上的标记。如果父母中有一个是冷酷的，孩子就会把这样的感情倾注于另一个人，而如果父母都对他不好，他的感情可能就会倾向他的老师。一般来说，这正是恐惧的结果：因为他所爱的人只能是给他带来安全感的人。在孩童时期，这一感情并不是健全的。当儿童所爱之人死去，可能危及到儿童的生命。即使在各方面看来都很正常，但后来的爱中会充满着惧怕。丈夫（或妻子）和孩子将为过度的忧虑所煎熬，只要他们只为自己活着，就会被认为是无情的。因此，父母不应以自身作为这种感情的对象而感到高兴。如果孩子一般有和睦的生活环境，而且很幸福，那在失去某一亲人时他就会毫无困难地克服他的苦痛。假使存在成长和幸福的正常条件，就应使追求生命与希望的动机得以充分发展。

During adolescence, however, there is need of something more positive in the way of attitude towards death, if adult life is to be satisfactory. The adult should think little about death, either his own or that of people whom he loves, not because he deliberately turns his thoughts to other things, for that is a useless exercise which never really succeeds, but because of the multiplicity of his interests and activities. When he does think of death, it is best to think with a certain stoicism, deliberately and calmly, not attempting to minimise its importance, but feeling a certain pride in rising above it. The principle is the same as in the case of any other terror: resolute contemplation of the terrifying object is the only possible treatment. One must say to oneself: ‘Well, yes, that might happen, but what of it?’ People achieve this in such a case as death in battle, because they are then firmly persuaded of the importance of the cause to which they have given their life, or the life of someone dear to them. Something of this way of feeling is desirable at all times. At all times, a man should feel that there are matters of importance for which he lives, and that his death, or the death of wife or child, does not put an end to all that interests him in the world. If this attitude is to be genuine and profound in adult life, it is necessary that, in adolescence, a youth should be fired with generous enthusiasms, and that he should build his life and career about them. Adolescence is the period of generosity, and it should be utilised for the formation of generous habits. This can be achieved by the influence of the father or of the teacher. In a better community, the mother would often be the one to do it, but as a rule, at present, the lives of women are such as to make their outlook too personal and not sufficiently intellectual for what I have in mind. For the same reason, adolescents (female as well as male) ought, as a rule, to have men among their teachers, until a new generation of women has grown up which is more impersonal in its interests.

但是。在青年时期中，如果生活较为满意，对于死亡需要有更为积极的态度。成年人应更少想到死亡问题，无论关于他自己或者是他所热爱的人，这不是因为老想这个问题是无益的，且不能真的有所收获，而是因为成年人有了更广泛的兴趣与活动面，从而使他有意地把思想转移到其他问题上。当他想到死亡时，最好以一种坚韧的斯多葛主义，从容而又镇静地加以思考，而不要试图去减低其重要性，而对于能够超越它则应感到一种骄傲。对于任何其他恐怖的事情，这个原则也一样：对于让我们感到惧怕的事情，唯一可能的处理办法是加以冷静的思考。人们应该对自己说：“是的，好吧，这是可能发失的，但那又怎么样呢？”在战争中牺牲这样的情况，人们就达到了这样的境界，因为他们坚信无论自己或亲人为战争捐躯是值得的。类似这样的情感方式在任何时代都可见到。任何时代，人们都会感觉到他死了，或者他的妻子、孩子死了，也不会从此终止世上的所有乐趣。如果在成年中这一态度是真实、深刻的，那么在青年期中，年轻人应为豁达的激情所鼓动，并以此去建设其生活与事业。青年是豁达的时期，应利用这一时期养成豁达的习惯方式。这一点能通过父亲或教师的影响来实现。在一个较好的家庭中，母亲经常是这一角色的担当者，但就现在的一般情况看来，妇女的生活使她们眼界狭隘、缺乏智力，因此无法胜任我心目中的这份工作。同一理由，青年（男性和女性）一般应在他们的教师中寻找这样的人物，直到新一代具有广泛兴趣的妇女成长起来。

The place of stoicism in life has, perhaps, been somewhat underestimated in recent times, particularly by progressive educationists. When misfortune threatens, there are two ways of dealing with the situation: we may try to avoid the misfortune, or we may decide that we will meet it with fortitude. The former method is admirable where it is available without cowardice; but the latter is necessary, sooner or later, for anyone who is not prepared to be the slave of fear. This attitude constitutes stoicism. The great difficulty, for an educator, is that the instilling of stoicism in the young affords an outlet for sadism. In the past, ideas of discipline were so fierce that education became a channel for impulses of cruelty. Is it possible to give the necessary minimum of discipline without developing a pleasure in making the child suffer? Old-fashioned people will, of course, deny that they feel any such pleasure. Everyone knows the story of the boy whose father, while administering the cane, said: ‘My boy, this hurts me more than it does you’; to which the boy replied: ‘Then, father, will you let me do it to you instead?’ Samuel Butler, in The Way of all Flesh, has depicted the sadistic pleasures of stern parents in a way which is convincing to any student of modern psychology. What, then, are we to do about it?

斯多葛主义在生活中的地位在近代有点被低估了，特别是在那些进步的教育家中。当不幸威胁我们时，有两种对付办法：我们可以尽力避开这种不幸，或者决心坚韧地与之作斗争。前一种方法如果能在没有怯懦的情况下获得成功，当然是值得敬佩的；但后一种方法对不准备成为恐惧之奴隶的人来说，迟早是不可少的。这种态度构成了斯多葛主义。对一个教育者来说，最大的困难是：在向青年灌输斯多葛主义时，为虐待径开了方便之门。过去，纪律观念很严厉，从而教育成了残忍冲动的途径。最低限度地保留必要的纪律原则，而不致于扩展到使儿童感到受苦为乐事，这是否可能呢？墨守成规的人当然会否认他们感到这样的快乐。大家都知道这样一个故事，一位做父亲的举棍打他的儿子时说：“孩子，我打你，我比你更难受。”对此他的孩子回答说：“父亲，那你愿意换过来让我替你这样做吗？”撒级尔·巴特勒在《众生之路》中曾以使现代心理学的任何学生都认可的方式，描写过严厉的双亲虐待狂式的快乐。那么，我们对此做些什么呢？

The fear of death is only one of many that are best dealt with by stoicism. There is the fear of poverty, the fear of physical pain, the fear of childbirth which is common among well-to-do women. All such fears are weakening and more or less contemptible. But if we take the line that people ought not to mind such things, we shall tend also to take the line that nothing need be done to mitigate evils. For a long time, it was thought that women ought not to have anaesthetics in childbirth; in Japan, this opinion persists to the present day. Male doctors held that anaesthetics would be harmful; there was no reason for this view, which was doubtless due to unconscious sadism. But the more the pains of childbirth have been mitigated, the less willing rich women have become to endure them: their courage has diminished faster than the need of it. Evidently there must be a balance. It is impossible to make the whole of life soft and pleasant, and therefore human beings must be capable of an attitude suitable to the unpleasant portions; but we must try to bring this about with as little encouragement to cruelty as possible.

对死亡的恐惧，只是最好以斯多葛主义去对待的诸多事情之一。此外还有对贫困的恐惧，对肉体痛苦的恐惧，富贵人家妇女一般对生育子女的恐惧。所有这些恐惧是怯懦而且多少有点可卑的。但是，如果我们限制说，人们不该注意这些事，那我们同样也会限制说，对于消除厄运来说，什么也不必做。过去，人们认为妇女分娩时不应使用麻醉药；在日本，这一看法一直延续到今天。男医生认定麻醉药是有害的；这种意见并无理由，它无疑是由无意识的虐待狂引起的。但是分娩的痛苦愈减轻，富妇们甘愿忍受的意志也就愈弱；她们的勇气比对勇气的需要消失得更快。显而易见，这里有一种平衡。要使整个人生过得舒适、愉快，是木可能的，因此人类必须具有一种应付逆境的态度；但我们必须力求尽可能地少鼓动残忍性。

Whoever has to deal with young children soon learns that too much sympathy is a mistake. Too little sympathy is, of course, a worse mistake, but in this, as in everything else, each extreme is bad. A child that invariably receives sympathy will continue to cry over every tiny mishap; the ordinary self-control of the average adult is only achieved through knowledge that no sympathy will be won by making a fuss. Children readily understand that an adult who is sometimes a little stern is best for them; their instinct tells them whether they are loved or not, and from those whom they feel to be affectionate they will put up with whatever strictness results from genuine desire for their proper development. Thus in theory the solution is simple: let educators be inspired by wise love, and they will do the right thing. In fact, however, the matter is more complicated. Fatigue, vexation, worry, impatience, beset the parent or teacher, and it is dangerous to have an educational theory which allows the adult to vent these feelings upon the child for the sake of his ultimate welfare. Nevertheless, if the theory is true, it must be accepted, and the dangers must be brought before the consciousness of the parent or teacher, so that everything possible may be done to guard against them.

任何一个与儿童相处的人会很快明白，过多的同情是错误的。当然，太少的同情更是错误的，在这方面就像其他任何事情一样，走极端都是不好的。一个总是受到传爱的孩子，稍有不如意的小事就会哭个木停；而通常成年人养成的自制，只是通过这样的知识达到的：大惊小怪也不能得到同情。儿童很容易认识到，一位有时稍微严肃点的成年人对他们是最好的；他们的本能会告诉他们自己是否为人所喜欢，从那些他们感到是慈爱的且希望他们正常发展的人那里，他们能忍受任何的严厉。因此在理论上这种方案是简单的：让教育者为明智的爱所促动，他们就会做出正确的事。但是，事实上这个问题是比较复杂的，因为疲惫、苦恼、忧虑、焦躁缠绕着父母亲和教师，但有一种教育理论是危险的，那就是允许成年人为了儿童的最终幸福，把这些情绪发泄到儿童的身上。木过，理论如果是正确的，它必须为人所接受，而把这些危险展现到双亲和教师的良知面前，以便做出尽可能的事来加以抵御。

We can now sum up the conclusions suggested by the foregoing discussion. In regard to the painful hazards of life, knowledge of them, on the part of children, should be neither avoided nor obtruded; it should come when circumstances make it unavoidable. Painful things, when they have to be mentioned, should be treated truthfully and unemotionally, except when a death occurs in the family, in which case it would be unnatural to conceal sorrow. The adults should display in their own conduct a certain gay courage, which the young will unconsciously acquire from their example. In adolescence, large impersonal interests should be set before the young, and education should be so conducted as to give them the idea (by suggestion, not by explicit exhortation) of living for purposes outside themselves. They should be taught to endure misfortune, when it comes, by remembering that there are still things to live for; but they should not brood on possible misfortunes, even for the purpose of being prepared to meet them. Those whose business it is to deal with the young must keep a close watch upon themselves to see that they do not derive a sadistic pleasure from the necessary element of discipline in education; the motive for discipline must always be the development of character or intelligence. For the intellect, also, requires discipline, without which accuracy will never be achieved. But the discipline of the intellect is a different topic, and lies outside the scope of this essay.

现在我们可以把上述讨论加以综合而得出结论。就一部分儿童来说，对于生活中的痛苦、不幸的知识，即不必给予回避，又不要强迫他们知道。当环境使痛苦无法避免时，它必然降临；但是当说到痛苦的事情时，应该抱以正常的和冷静的态度，除非是家中死了人，因为在这种情况下掩饰悲痛是不自然的。成年人应该在自己的行为中表现出某种欢愉的勇气，而年轻人会不知不觉地从他们的榜样中汲取这种勇气。在青年时期，应该把大量的非个人化的乐趣呈现在青年面前，教育应以赋予青年为自身以外的目的而活着的观念为指导（通过启发暗示，而不是通过明显的规劝）。当不幸来临时，应通过想起还有许多他们活着为之奋斗的事情，而让他们学会忍受这种不幸；但他们不能沉湎于可能的不幸中，即使为了做好准备去应付它们。那些以与青年人打交道为职业的人必须有所收敛，不要企图从教育纪律的必要因素中获得虐待狂式的快乐；教育中实施纪律的动机必须始终为了品德和智力的发展。就智力来说，也需要纪律，没有它决不能达到准确性。但智力方面的纪律是另外的问题，不属于本文论述的范围之内。

I have only one more word to say, and that is, that discipline is best when it springs from an inner impulse. In order that this may be possible, it is necessary that the child or adolescent should feel the ambition to achieve something difficult, and should be willing to make efforts to that end. Such ambition is usually suggested by some person in the environment; thus even selfdiscipline depends, in the end, upon an educational stimulus.

我还有一句话要说，这就是来自内心要求的纪律是最好的。为使这一点成为可能，必须使儿童和青年具有完成某件难事的志向，并愿为之竭尽全力。这种志向通常是受周围某人的启示而产生的；这样，甚至自律最后也要依靠一种教育上的鼓励。